1. Introduction
§ Powerlifting is a competitive strength sport in which the 3 powerlifts (Squat, Bench Press and Deadlift) are judged and competitors are broken down into weight classes and whoever can lift the highest amount of weight wins the competition. Powerlifting’s roots came from the 1950’s in what was called “odd lift” competition, and interest in the sport grew over the years with the help of Bob Hoffman until the first sanctioned powerlifting meet as recognized in modern day was held in 1973 by the IPF Federation. Each competitor is allowed 3 attempts per each of the 3 events, for a total of 9 lifts. The competitor with the highest total (sum of their best attempt for each 3 lifts) in their weight class and division wins the competition. There are 2 main factions of powerlifting, Geared, which enables the use of special suits and equipment that assists the athlete to be stronger, and Raw, which has minimal supportive equipment usually just a belt and wrist wraps and or knee wraps.
§ The deadlift is a compound movement in which a loaded barbell begins on the ground and the competitor must lift it off the ground so that their standing straight up to complete the lift. The name deadlift means to lift dead weight. Most exercises have an eccentric phase (lowering movement) however the deadlift is one of few exercise movements that do not have an eccentric phase. The two most popular variations of the deadlift are the Conventional Deadlift and the Sumo Deadlift.
§ Classification of the Deadlift: (Classifying motor skills simplify discussion, allows research to be compared, and provides context for coaches and teachers.)
o Gross motor movement involves large musculature, less precision, and fundamental motor skills. Fine motor movement involves the control of small muscles, hand eye coordination, and precision.
§ The deadlift is a Gross motor movement.
o The beginning and end of a motor skill can be Discrete, to have a clearly specified beginning and end of the movement, Serial, which is a series of repeated discrete movements, and finally Continuous, which has an arbitrary start and end.
§ The deadlift if performed for one repetition is a discrete motor skill, or if performed for a set of more than one repetition is considered a Serial Motor Skill.
o Motor-Cognitive Dimension is related to the learner, not the motor skill. Its classification depends upon the performer’s current stage of development for that particular skill. In Low Cognitive Demand, actions are automatic with little thought about the task. In High Cognitive Demand, the motor component is less significant than the cognitive element of performing the movement. Moderate Cognitive Demand falls somewhere in the middle with an equal balance of motor and cognitive elements to perform the motor skill.
§ For a beginner, the deadlift is a High Cognitive Demand motor skill, and as the powerlifter progresses, it becomes more and more a low cognitive demand after hours of deliberate practice.
o Species wide vs Individual skills: A Phylogenetic motor skill is one that every member of the species has the ability to perform (assuming no disability), such as walking, and it is a naturally learned motor skill. An Ontogenetic motor skill is one that is individual specific, and requires teaching to learn the skill, such as being able to throw a football with a spiral. (Throwing an object is Phylogenetic, however throwing a spiral football is a skill that is taught- therefore Ontogenetic.)
§ Picking an object up off the ground is a phylogenetic skill, however performing a deadlift for maximal load, with correct technique is an ontogenetic skill which requires being taught properly.
o The stability of the environment the skill is performed in can be open or closed. (Environment refers to the characteristics of objects and people the skill is performed within. Closed skill means the environment doesn’t change while performing the skill. These tend to be self-paced, the object waits for your action. Open skill means the environment is changing during the performance of the skill. Usually not self-paced and requires constant adjustment to the environment.
§ The deadlift is a closed motor skill.
o
Gentile’s two dimension Taxonomy of motor skills, was developed initially for physical therapists, because Gentile considered the previous five classifications as too simplistic. In the two dimension taxonomy you must consider the environment and its regulatory conditions. Is the environment/object stationary or in motion? Is there variability between trials, or is it the same each time? These conditions regulate how a movement is performed. In addition, the function of the action has two considerations, is the performer stable or in motion? For a body to be in motion, there must be displacement- moving from one location to another. Finally, is there an object being manipulated or no object within the motor skill?
§ According to Gentile’s two Dimension Taxonomy, a single repetition of the deadlift would be classified as Number 2 on Gentile’s chart (Body stable with object, environment stationary with no inter-trial variability.)
§ This instruction manual has been created to assist Strength and Conditioning coaches, as well as novice raw powerlifters in learning, applying and teaching proper technique for the Deadlift in the most ideal manner using the scientific principles of human motor skill learning.
§ The remaining contents of this manual will go in depth on Understanding the learner, using demonstration, Using feedback, adding constraints, assessing learning, and creating effective practice, as it pertains to coaching proper deadlift technique for a raw inexperienced powerlifter.
2. Understanding the learner- Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior, the result of previous experience or practice. Learning cannot be directly measured but it is inferred from performance, change in potential or capability to perform a behavior.
§ The target audience of this instruction handbook includes Strength and Conditioning Coaches, as well as Raw Novice Powerlifters. This is intended for individuals at an introductory level of deadlifting skill and or those who coach/train them. Individuals who are most likely to be novice powerlifters are usually in their adolescent stage, so for the purposes of this manual the Novice Powerlifter will be assumed to be between the ages of 13 and 19 years old.
§ Stages of Learning: Cognitive stage- the learner encounters cognitive problems and must integrate information. They think of what they should do, and have high percentage of error and variability in their performance. Associative Stage- the learner makes associations between environmental cues and movements. The learner can detect their own errors, performances becomes refined and variability and error percentage is decreased. Autonomous Stage- The learner performs the motor skill in a habitual or automatic manner. No conscious thought of the action processes. The learner can now divide their attention.
o Our target audience of an adolescent, beginning raw powerlifter is going to fall into the Cognitive Stage of Learning.
§ Attention in Motor Learning: Attention- in the context of human performance is, conscious or unconscious engagement in perceptual, cognitive and or motor activities, before, during and after performing motor skills. The Allocation of Resources in Attention- On average, 0-6 year olds will have over-exclusive attention- tend to pay attention to a subject at a time, 7-11 year olds will have over-inclusive attention- very distracted and have a hard time focusing on any single thing, and humans 12 years and older will have selective attention- the ability to filter what is vital and non-vital input to allocate attention resources to.
o Our target audience has Selective Attention, meaning they will be able to focus on what is important and what is not important.
§ It is very important that the reader understands the following concepts because the deadlift is a very risky movement to perform especially at a heavy load and so the target audience can best teach the movement we must pay attention to what type of demonstration, feedback, constraints, assessment, and practice will be best for the adolescent inexperienced raw powerlifter.
3. Using demonstration: Demonstration- A visually modelled event which provides a template for imitation. We use demonstration to convey lasting information with maximal efficiency, to use social cognitive theory to guide practice, and to keep the goal in mind (outcome or technique). Demonstration increases the efficiency of skill acquisition.
§ Observational Learning- the tendency in human behavior to observe others and adapt our own behavior as a result. (Modelling, imitation, vicarious learning.)
§ Attention- Increase attention to your demonstrations by ensuring clarity and salience, and add functional value. Know your learner’s attentional capabilities, guide them from a broad focus to a narrow one.
o External- Under the instructor’s control. It is Distinctive, has Functional Value, for the appropriate Skill Level, age and status.
o Internal- Need instructor’s awareness. Based off cognitive arousal level, type of attention and cognitive capabilities.
§ Retention- The consensus of the literature is that 8-10 demonstrations are most effective, while 1-5 demonstrations are ineffective at teaching.
§ The Golden Rule of Motor Learning- Increased cognitive engagement leads to better learning. Use strategies to maximize your learner’s cognitive activity.
o We can increase cognitive engagement by alternating demonstration with practice, vary the type of demonstration, peer review- have students check for errors and differences, and use demonstration retrospectively.
§ Motor Production- Feedback and Conception Matching: We can help learners to detect ways in which their movement and those of the models are similar and different by using concurrent monitoring and feedback. *Feedback and Demonstration can have a possible negative interaction with the learner. To combat this issue we must keep our goals in mind:
o Goal- Successful Outcome: emphasize the strategy, and use demonstration for emulation.
o Goal- Change Movement Technique: Minimize feedback of the outcome, and if possible, remove structural information.
o * Use appropriate feedback to improve the matching process.
§ Motivating the Learner-Motivation comes from external incentives, vicarious rewards, and internal or self-incentives.
o When using demonstration for our target audience, we can capture their attention by giving general cues in the beginning and as they catch on we can be more specific with any cues. Be clear and concise with the cues, while adding functional value to the movement. We can increase their cognitive arousal by motivating them with external incentives and vicarious rewards (cognitive engagement increases learning. We can increase cognitive engagement by alternating demonstration with practice, vary the type of demonstration (video, in person, diagram.), peer review- have students check for errors and differences, and use demonstration retrospectively.). We will demonstrate the movement between 8 and 10 times to maximize retention. We will also use concurrent monitoring and give feedback, however we will not give feedback about the outcome, and we are just trying to teach proper form.
4. Using feedback-
§ Task Intrinsic Feedback
o Visual
o Auditory
o Proprioceptive
o Tactile
§ Augmented Feedback
o Concurrent and Terminal
§ Knowledge of Results (KR) - Information about the outcome of the action, usually in relation to the task goal. Use when, intrinsic feedback is not available or to confirm it, and to motivate and promote discovery learning. Usually a quantitative feedback that is not frequently used.
§ Knowledge of Performance (KP) - Information about the characteristics of the movement performed, usually in relation to a task goal. Use when, skills require a specific technique, and to improve coordination. Usually a qualitative feedback that is used frequently. Ways to give KP:
· Verbal- descriptive and prescriptive
· Video/Split screen- mixed effectiveness
· Kinematics and Point-Light Displays- Graphs can powerfully illustrate movement patterns, PLD removes distracting structure.
· Biofeedback- KP of physiological processes. Ex: EMG mostly for coordination, motion analyses.
o KR and KP can actually hinder skill learning when-
§ Presented concurrently (during performance)
§ In retention/transfer after being presented after each practice trial.
§ When erroneous and intrinsic feedback is available.
§ Administering Feedback:
o Frequency- Begin with high frequency of feedback in the beginning, and as the learner progresses and improves, the frequency of feedback should become less and less. This fading schedule of feedback helps with retention, and makes the learner less dependent on feedback. Encourage the learner to ask for help when they feel they need it. Give feedback only after a certain amount of trials, give the learner overall knowledge of progress, while it diminishes their dependency on feedback because it lacks specificity.
§ Message that Feedback Conveys:
o Error Detection- More effective for learning
o Positive Reinforcement- Motivates the learner
§ When should Augmented Feedback be given?
o Terminal- at the end of a trial or performance. It is almost always effective.
o Concurrent- During the performance, is most effective when, task intrinsic feedback is low, the learner has poor reference of corrections, and the learner is unsure of what to do.
§ Now that we understand the concepts of feedback, as it pertains to coaching the deadlift for our target audience, we must:
o Give Knowledge of Performance Feedback by, using descriptive and prescriptive verbal cues(such as, tight core, big breath, arch back, straight arms, etc.), video analysis of the learner’s technique versus that of an experts(professional powerlifter), Kinematics(motion capture) if available, and use the learner’s biofeedback(leverages specific to their body, which technique style would be best for them, etc.). We will use a fading schedule of feedback based on the learner’s progression. We will use both error detection and positive reinforcement to make sure they are learning and stay motivated. And we should give only Terminal Feedback at the end of each set of repetitions.
5. Adding constraints
§ Organism Constraints for performing the deadlift include:
o Individual Anatomy- Individuals with longer arms and shorter torsos relative to their height tend to deadlift more efficiently due to their advantageous leverages and shortened range of motion.
o Motivation
o Amount of Muscle Mass- Bigger muscles have more potential to move more weight.
§ Neuromuscular Adaptations- An efficient nervous system can recruit motor units quicker and more efficiently. This is where most strength improvements come from. “The muscle mass is the engine of the car, but the nervous system decides how hard you push on the gas pedal.”
o Technique- Moving the bar in the most optimal path to ensure shortest range of motion and no wasted energy.
§ Task Specific Constraints- Amount of resistance, Accommodating resistance(movement becomes easier closer to lockout, so bands and chains can be used to increase the resistance closer to the top of the movement, also known as Compensatory Acceleration Training.), changing the range of motion(deficit deadlifts, Snatch Grip Deadlifts, rack pulls, etc.), Volume, Intensity, Frequency, Time Under Tension, and Density(amount of work performed in given time) are all strength training variables that can be increased or decreased to add to or take away from the constraints of deadlifting.
§ Environmental (Nurture) Constraints: Does the individual have a tutor/coach, access to proper facilities, and social and family support?
§ To overcome these constraints for performing the deadlift, we must ensure that the environment for our learner promotes improvement. Give them access to coaching, proper facilities, and ensure they have social support from friends and family. We can manipulate Volume, Intensity, Frequency, Time under Tension, and Density to further make use of these constraints. With a proper coach we can teach them the best technique for their individual structure, motivate the learner, and design deliberate practice that increases their muscle mass, neuromuscular efficiency, and improves technique.
6. Assessing learning- Learning: is relatively permanent change in behavior, the result of previous experience or practice. Learning cannot be directly measured but it is inferred from performance, change in potential or capability to perform a behavior. Characteristics of the Learning Process:
§ Performance of skills shows improvement over time, Performance becomes more consistent(less variable) over time, there is greater persistence in the improvements made, and performance of the skill becomes more adaptable.
§ There are 4 types of Performance Curves, which are methods of inferring learning by recording levels of performance across practice. (Linear- proportional increases over time, Negatively Accelerated- large early increases, Positively Accelerated- Small increases early and larger increases later, Ogive- Small increases early and late, great improvement in the middle phase.) It is rare to find Linear and Positively Accelerated curves in real life examples, Ogive and Negatively Accelerated are the most common curves found.
o Linear:
o Negatively Accelerated:
o Positively Accelerated:
o Ogive:
§ Variables that change with learning- cognitive processes, inter-limb coordination, muscle EMG properties, force regulation, efficiency, intra-limb coordination, and attention.
§ In early skill learning, the emphasis is on assembling a new movement pattern(coordination), and later in skill learning the emphasis is on scaling the movement pattern(control, and refining parameters.).
§ Bernstein’s Degrees of Freedom: in any system, the number of independent elements to be controlled.
o Early Learning- novice simplifies the movement by freezing a portion of available degrees of freedom.
o Later Learning- The learner can unfreeze DOF introducing more controllable parts.
o Expert Performance- Release and organization of DOF, flexibility to freeze DOF at appropriate moments.
§ To show learning, we can measure performance outcome and performance production.
o Performance Outcome: does not tell us how the result was achieved, only the final outcome. Can measure accuracy (hit or miss, target zones, radial target, absolute, constant error, etc.), time on task (time trials), and the magnitude or size of the outcome (distance, weight, height, etc.).
o Performance Production: focuses on the process of how an action was performed. Process measures are kinematics and technique rubrics.
§ Assessing Learning by Retention: Measures performance of a practiced task after a period of time has elapsed post practice.
o Pre-test- measures ability to perform task before practice.
o Practice/Acquisition of skill-
o Post-Test- Measures ability to perform the task after period of practice.
o Retention Test- given between 1 and 7 days after the Post-Test, it measures the ability to perform the task after a no practice retention interval.
§ Assessing Learning by Transfer: the fundamental goals of practicing a skill are to transfer levels of performance achieved in practice to real, meaningful situations. Transfer can have a negative or positive effect on learning of a new skill. The Significance of Transfer defines the appropriate sequencing of skills to be learned:
o Curricula tends to be organized in a simple to complex order
o Early Fundamentals must be learned before advancing
o Skill classifications can be a useful tool to guide transfer
o Appropriate order of Functional Treatment
§ We can know if our learners are in fact learning the deadlift if there is improvement, more consistency, more persistence and adaptations made from their initial Pre-Test. Some characteristics we can look for are, increased muscle mass, increased strength and work capacity, refined technique, ability to manipulate their Degrees of Freedom, and improvements made to cognitive processes, inter-limb coordination, muscle emg properties, force regulation, efficiency, intra-limb coordination, and attention. If the Results of the Retention Test have improved upon the Pre-Test, then we can infer that our subject is indeed learning the deadlift.
7. Creating effective practice: How can we optimize practice? What type of practice is required to reach expertise? When regulatory conditions vary in real performance, they should also vary in practice. Vice Versa, when regulatory conditions do not vary in real performance, they also shouldn’t vary in practice. The variability of practice concerns the variety of movement and or environmental characteristics experienced during practice of a new skill. This leads to performance in practice and in learning. The deadlift is a closed skill with no inter-trial variability in performance on the powerlifting platform, so therefore we should practice it with no inter-trial variability. Early learners need low variability in practice until the task goals and ideas of the movement are clear, for all new motor skills.
§ Better Learning or Better Practice Performance?
o Blocked Practice results in better practice performance. It consists of practicing skills in separate chunks of practice time. An example would be, working on deadlift technique for 20 minutes, then working on maximal strength for 20 minutes, and then practicing “game-situations” your competition lifts for the remainder of practice. As you can see practice is organized into separate blocks that focus on different goals that will come together to meet the underlying goal of learning proper deadlift technique.
o Random Practice results in better learning of the motor skill. This however does not mean practice isn’t organized, it is just perceived as random for the learner, but is still planned by the coach. An example would be, to alternate sets between lighter weight and focusing on technique refinery with, heavier maximal strength sets back and forth. Then work on Rack Pulls, and then the full competition lift in a circuit fashion. This is totally at random for the learner as, practice is not set up in a logical flow that the learner can expect. This forces more cognitive engagement from the learner.
§ Can you Over-Practice? Over-Learning- is practice which goes beyond the amount required to achieve the tasks criterion performance. Over-Learning assists in retention.
§ Breaking down the Deadlift: will breaking down the motor skill transfer to real performance?
o Fractionizing- is practicing parts of the movement separately, and then combining it together when each “fraction” is learned.
o Segmentation- Break the movement down into segments, for our purposes we will break the deadlift down into, the setup, initial pull, and lockout. (3 steps). Segmentation you practice the setup until learned, then the initial pull until learned, and then the setup combined with the initial pull. Then you practice the lockout, and then you combine all three segments and practice the deadlift
(setup, initial pull, and lockout). This is known as progressive chaining.
o Simplification- is utilizing variation on the whole practice to reduce the difficulty of the entire skill.
§ Attaining Expertise: Deliberate Practice is term that was coined by the famous psychologist Anders Ericsson. Ericsson wrote extensively on attaining expertise in many different fields. He came up with the well-known and researched 10,000 hour principle, in which 10,000 hours of deliberate practice is required to become an expert. Deliberate Practice is usually not fun, takes a long term approach, it is tailored to the individual, has a tutor or coach, consists of many repetitions, is highly structured, focuses on the quality and quantity of training sessions and requires high motivation with the specific goal being to improve performance. Motivation is the ultimate constraint of reaching expertise according to the rules of Deliberate Practice.
8. An Optimally Designed, Deliberate Practice Plan for Teaching the Deadlift to Novice Adolescent, Raw Powerlifters:
§ Our goals we wish to accomplish through practice are to have our students learn how to deadlift and in the long term master the movement and become an expert. To accomplish the main goal, we must implement practice that will increase muscle mass, neuromuscular efficiency, improve technique, and work on injury prevention.
§ In our pre-warmup routine, the coach will introduce 8-10 different demonstrations to the athlete, as well as stating several cues of what the athlete needs to accomplish such as “tight core, big breath, slightly arched lower back, etc.”
§ Next comes the warmup routine where the athlete will prepare their body to perform at its best.
§ Once, the athlete is warmed up will come the Initial Retention Test so that later we can evaluate whether the athlete is learning or not. (This can be once every 12-16 weeks.) In the Retention Test we must look for improvements in adaptations of muscle mass, strength and work capacity, as well as consistency and persistence in their technique (Performance Production- Technique Rubric).
§ If not performing a Retention Test then, practice can now begin. In the first 4 weeks our goal is to make the athlete over-practice so that they over-learn the deadlift and retain the technique they have learned more effectively. We will perform repetitions of the deadlift, using progressive chaining/segmentation, in its three main phases until technique is sufficient, during this beginning stage we can use concurrent feedback to help guide the athlete. Once technique is at a satisfactory level, we can alternate practice and demonstrations to help keep the athlete engaged. As the athlete progresses we will use a fading schedule of feedback, meaning when first beginning we will provide a great deal of feedback, but as the athlete becomes more and more proficient, we will provide less feedback. We will provide the athlete with Knowledge of Performance Feedback, including error detection, and positive reinforcement to help keep them motivated. As the athlete progresses we will change from concurrent feedback to terminal feedback at the end of each set, and end of each training session. At the end of each training session we can make use of video analysis of the athlete, and have them try to correct themselves, and then if they miss any issues that need correcting the coach can point them out. Our practices will follow a “Blocked” template because improved practice performance transfers to the competition. As far as periodization of the deadlift training program, this too will also be blocked. There are three main phases: Hypertrophy phase( high volume work, increasing muscle mass, 7-12 rep range, for 2-3 months.), Strength Phase(lower volume, higher intensity, make the newly acquired muscle stronger and more efficient, 3-6 rep range, for 2-3 months.), Peaking for Competition Phase(bring down fatigue to perform at 100%, for 1-2 months.). So a typical 8 month plan for a powerlifter can be planned as 3 months hypertrophy, 3 months strength, 2 months peaking, Competition, offseason(1-2 weeks), repeat.
The author hopes this instruction manual is an invaluable resource that is usable, comprehensive, provides clarity and relevance and applies scientific concepts toward the teaching and learning of the deadlift for our target audience.